Children, adolescents, and media violence: a critical look at the research

pt. I. Understanding aggression

1. There and back again : a media violence tale

A look through the violent sands of time

Evaluating the evidence for evil influences

Aggressive behavior and aggression-related constructs

Types of aggression

Aggression-related constructs

Violent entertainment and aggression-related constructs

Answering questions so new questions can be raised

On the value of research

Preview of coming attractions

Summary

2. Exposing the beast within : aggressive behavior across development

Normative development and individual variation

The developmental pathway from anger to conflict to aggression

Anger

Conflict

Normative aggression in preschool

Normative aggression in grade school

Normative aggression in adolescence

School shooters

Assessing threats made by youth

Evaluating current threat assessment procedures

Correlation

Correlation is not causation

Individual variation in aggressive behavior

Desisting

Stabilizing

Escalating

Onsetting

Individual patterns of aggression as a function of violent entertainment

Sex differences in aggressive behavior across development

Sex differences in aggression and violent entertainment

Aggressive behavior in the context of development

Developmental tasks and violent entertainment

Excessive aggression in youth

Aggression and developmental psychopathology

Developmental psychopathology and entertainment violence

Summary.

3. Understanding the beast within : theories of aggressive behavior

Understanding theories

Valid theories

Pseudoscientific theory

Theories of aggression

Psychoanalytic theory of aggression

Evaluation of the psychoanalytic theory of aggression

Application of psychoanalytic theory to media violence

Frustration theory

Evaluation of frustration theory

Application of frustration theory to media violence

Social learning theory

Evaluation of social learning theory

Application of social learning theory to media violence

Social information processing theory of aggression

Evaluation of social information processing theory

Application of social information processing theory to media violence

Script theory

Evaluation of script theory

Application of script theory to media violence

Control theories

Self-control theory

Social control theory

Evaluation of control theory

Application of control theory to media violence

General aggression model

Evaluation of the general aggression model

Application of the GAM to media violence

Theories of aggression and developmental considerations

Summary

4. Dining on death and destruction : the how much and why of violent media consumption

Media violence consumption across development

Survey research

Varieties of survey methods and problems

Social desirability

Patterns of media consumption

Media ownership

Media consumption during childhood

Media consumption during adolescence

Gender differences in media consumption

Childhood

Adolescence

Reasons for consuming violent entertainment

Uses and gratification of violent media

Companionship

Escape

Habit

Learning

Passing time

Relaxation

Sensation seeking

Gratifications specific to violent media

Vicarious aggression

Identity formation : individual identity

Identity formation : social identity

Defiance of restrictions

Empowerment and social status

Mood management

The importance of understanding why youth consume violent media

Violent media consumption as a function of development

Summary

pt. II. Effects of specific forms of violent media on youth.

5. Violent media and the need to be strong and powerful

Historical proponents of media violence

The so-called modern-day benefits of media violence

Anecdotal evidence : is it scientific?

The use of flawed data

Evaluating the empirical evidence presented by Jones

Does media violence increase feelings of strength, power, and competence?

Self-efficacy

Media violence and self-efficacy

Does media violence increase feelings of control?

Locus of control

Media violence and locus of control

Does media violence consumption make youth less likely to aggress?

Catharsis

Media violence and catharsis

Does media violence consumption help youth deal with anxiety and fear?

Research on media violence-induced fear

Virtual reality and phobias

A final dagger into the heart of sexy vampire slayers

Research on media violence and body image

Summary

6. Watching the playful beast : sports violence and aggression

Aggression in modern sport

There was no "second spitter" hidden in a grassy knoll for Roberto Alomar

Modeling aggression and its consequences

Laboratory experiments

Laboratory experiments and observational learning

Observational learning and the Roberto Alomar incident

On the importance of rough-and-tumble play

Watching aggression in sport and sports entertainment : effects on aggressive behavior

Sports violence and hostility

Sports violence and gender

Longitudinal research

Laying the smack down on sports entertainment

The nature of physical activity in sports entertainment

Competitive contests in sports entertainment

Rules that govern play in sports entertainment

Research on the effects of viewing professional wrestling

Factors that influence imitative behavior in youth

Power, similarities, and consequences

Identification

Personal fable

Effects of watching aggressive behavior on youth aggression during sport

Generalizing from observed sport to a different sport

Priming

Aggressive networks

Summary.

7. Violence-laden imagination : comic books, fiction, and toys

Comic book violence

Comic book sales

Comic book content

Slapstick humor

Comic book violence in compared to other types of media violence

Comic book violence and aggressive behavior in youth

Early research

Modern research

Research on late adolescents and young adults

The future of media violence research may be written in comic books

Violence in literature and youthful fear and aggression

Frightening stories and fear

Aggressive stories and aggressive behavior

War toys and aggression

War toy research

A closer look at gender differences in war toy research

Critique of the war toy literature

Summary

8. Animating the beast : cartoon violence

Cartoons : a brief historical overview

Violence in cartoons

The effects of comedy on the perception of cartoon violence

Cognitive transformation

Schematic processing

Priming

Contextual factors

Non-comedic cartoons and perceived violence

Graphicness

Perceived actuality

Perceived similarity

Perceived reality

Cartoons and aggressive behavior : the evidence

Disinhibition

Laboratory research in early childhood

Comedic and non-comedic violence

Object-oriented and person-oriented aggression

Field experiments in early childhood

Ecological validity

Demand characteristics

Face validity

The research

Research on early childhood

A study that combines object- and peer-oriented aggression

Within- and between-subjects designs and field experiments

Research in middle childhood

Aggressive behavior

Aggression-related constructs

Research on adolescence

Summary .

9. Listening to the beast : violence in music and music videos

Historical overview

The focus of modern-day research on music violence

Heavy metal

Rap

The popularity of music

The lyrical content of heavy metal and rap

Lyrics and sexual content

Lyrics and violent content

The potential effects of lyrics

Lyrics : are they really that important?

Lyrical comprehension across development

Why developmental differences in lyrical comprehension occur

Lyrical incomprehension : a double-edged sword

The best comprehension is related to the perceived importance of the music

On hearing things that cannot be heard

Can backwards-masked messages be detected?

Can backwards-masked messages be heard when a song is played forward?

Backwards-masked messages, suicide, and the law

Rockin' and a rollin' and a fightin'

The effects of music violence on youth

Correlational research

Experimental research

Linking suicidal lyrics and suicidal behavior

Prevalence and risk

Lyrics and suicidal ideation

Heavy metal music and suicide

Amplification effects and suicide

Heavy metal music and suicide : a link that is broken

Sex, violence, and video tape

The Buggles were wrong

Why music videos may still be important in the study of media violence

Yearly consumption

Music video content

The effects of violent music videos of adolescents

College students are not children

Comparing music videos to music alone

Summary

10. Watching the beast : live-action television and movie violence

Violence on television

Differences between movies and television

The context of aggression and television violence

Glamorized violence

Glamorized violence and learning

Research on the effects of glamorization on aggression in youth

Justified violence

Justified violence in the context of fantasy and reality

Contrast effects

The effects of television violence on aggressive behavior

Correlational studies in childhood

Preschool

Middle childhood

Summary of correlational research

Experimental research in childhood

Summary of experimental research

Research on adolescents

Correlational studies

Quasi-experiments

Experimental research

Introduction of television and aggressive behavior

Natural experiments

Indirect aggression

The effect of television violence on aggression-related constructs

Attitudes towards the use of aggression

Emotional expression

Fantasizing

Identification with the aggressor

Memory

Interpretation of ambiguous stimuli

Desensitization

Habituation to media violence

Desensitization to real-world violence

Important of discriminating habituation and desensitization

Research on habituation

Research on desensitization

Behavioral desensitization

Physiological desensitization

Cognitive and emotional desensitization

Limitations of the desensitization research

Summary .

11. Playing with the beast : violent video games

The popularity of violent video games

Teaching kids to kill

Video game eras and video game violence

Atari era : abstract violence

Nintendo era : increasing realism

Sony era : lifelike violence

Types of violent video games

First and third person perspective violent video games

First person shooter : multi-tiered environment (FPS-MTE)

First person shooter : rail (FPS-R)

Third person shooting and fighting (TPSF)

Subgenres of violent video games

Online, multiplayer violent video games

The effects of violent video games on youth as a function of video game era and game type

Correlational research

Atari and Nintendo eras

Sony era

Putting the "inconsistent" correlational findings in perspective

Experimental research

Atari era

Nintendo era

Sony era

Important issues related to experimental research

Summary

pt. III. Media violence and the concept of risk

12. Aggressive behavior : risk and protective factors

Beans and aggression

Defining risk and protection

Child characteristics that are risk factors for aggression

Genetics

Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA)

Hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis (HPG)

aggression and general underarousal

Temperament

Attachment

Developmental status

Environmental risk factors

Parenting and the parent-child relationship

Parenting styles

Punishment and monitoring

Siblings

Methodological issues in sibling research

Home environment

Peers

Peer acceptance

Peer relationships

Neighborhood violence

Summary of risk factors

Protective factors from aggression

Protective characteristics of the child

Protective characteristics in the environment

On the importance of risk and protective factors in media violence research

Summary .

13. The threat of media violence : assessing its magnitude and reducing its effects

Sizing it all up

Meta-analysis

Limitations of meta-analysis

Strengths of meta-analysis

Meta-analysis and the magnitude of effects

Variance

Accountable variance in the social sciences

Meta-analysis and research on media violence

Video games : the baddest of the bad?

Identification with the aggressor and the rewarding of violent behavior

Active learning

Practice effects and murder

Continuous exposure to violence

Does size matter when it comes to different types of violent media?

Placing the effect sizes for violent media in the context of other risk factors for aggression

Media violence effect sizes in comparison to health-related effect sizes

Media violence effect sizes in comparison to other risk factors for aggression

Critique of effect size revelations

Media violence exposure and moderators

Child and adolescent moderators

Age

Gender

Trait aggression

Environmental moderators

Socioeconomic status (SES)

Parenting

multiple moderators and future research

Reducing the effects of media violence consumption through mediation

Types of mediation

Mediation research

Research on co-viewing mediation

Research on restrictive mediation

Research on active mediation

mediation questions in need of answering

Summary

14. Policy, violent entertainment, and youth

Legislating media violence : is there really a need?

A brief look at policy making

Violent entertainment and current policy

Legislating comic books...almost

Guidelines of the CCA

Evaluation of the comic book industry's attempt at self-regulation

Legislating music

Evaluation of the labeling system

Legislating movies

MPAA rating system

Evaluating the MPAA rating system

Legislating television

Television rating systems and the V-chip

Evaluating the television rating system and the V-chip

Legislating video games

ESRB rating system

Evaluating the ESRB rating system

Media violence policy : a look to the future

Summary

pt. IV. Nonviolent media and youth

15. The good, the bad, and the ugly : the effects of nonviolent media on children and adolescents

Defining the good, the bad and the ugly

The good

Educational and information programs

Prosocial media and prosocial actions

Effect sizes of prosocial media

Media and academic learning

Prejudice and stereotype reduction

The bad

Prejudice and stereotype formation

Advertising and youth

Drug use and the media

Sexual attitudes and behavior

The ugly

Summary.